A new study published in the journal Personality and Individual Differences provides evidence that toxic masculinity may contribute to men’s reluctance to express emotions, which in turn reduces their likelihood of seeking mental health support. The research suggests that while toxic masculinity does not directly predict whether men seek help for emotional or suicidal problems, it is linked to a pattern of emotional restriction that does. The findings may help inform efforts to improve mental health service access for men, who remain underrepresented in treatment settings despite elevated suicide risks.
Toxic masculinity is a term used to describe a set of cultural beliefs that exaggerate traditional male gender norms, particularly those that emphasize toughness, emotional suppression, dominance over others, and a rejection of anything perceived as feminine. Unlike general masculinity, which can include neutral or even positive traits such as independence or responsibility, toxic masculinity refers to traits that can perpetuate harm.
The research was conducted by Eva Horton, Nathaniel Schermerhorn, and Paul Hanel at the University of Essex and Essex Partnership University Trust. Their study aimed to clarify how specific attitudes associated with toxic masculinity—such as aggression, dominance, and avoidance of emotional vulnerability—contribute to barriers in men’s mental health help-seeking behavior.
The researchers set out to explore whether toxic masculinity fosters emotional restriction among men, and whether this restriction is what prevents many from seeking professional help for emotional distress. Their motivation stemmed from ongoing public health concerns in the United Kingdom, where suicide rates among men are significantly higher than among women and mental health services remain underutilized by male populations.
“This study was motivated by an underrepresentation of ‘toxic masculinity’ in academia, which did not reflect the significant use of the term in the media. The research additionally addresses an ongoing real-world problem, of higher death by suicides in men and lower access to mental health services in male populations,” the researchers told PsyPost.
The research included two studies. The first involved 220 participants—66 men, 152 women, and 2 individuals identifying as other genders—ranging in age from 18 to 83. Participants completed a battery of psychological scales measuring their endorsement of toxic masculinity and related traits such as aggression, dominance, and avoidance of femininity. The researchers also measured “restrictive emotionality,” or the belief that men should not express emotional vulnerability.
Toxic masculinity was assessed using specific subscales from established questionnaires that focused on beliefs about dominance over women, winning at all costs, and the rejection of non-heterosexual identities. Restrictive emotionality was measured with items like “A man should never admit when others hurt his feelings.” The survey also included measures of hostile sexism, traditional values, self-reliance, and emotional control.
Study 2 focused specifically on men, recruiting 264 adult male participants from across the United Kingdom. These men completed similar measures and were also asked about their likelihood of seeking help for personal emotional problems or suicidal thoughts. This allowed the researchers to examine both direct and indirect associations between toxic masculinity, emotional restriction, and help-seeking behavior.
In both studies, toxic masculinity was strongly associated with restrictive emotionality. Men who endorsed traditional masculine norms centered on dominance and aggression were more likely to believe that showing emotion is a sign of weakness. These individuals also tended to report high levels of self-reliance and emotional control, traits that are often socially encouraged in men but can be detrimental to psychological wellbeing when taken to extremes.
However, when it came to predicting whether someone would seek help for emotional difficulties or suicidal ideation, toxic masculinity was not directly related to help-seeking intentions. Instead, the researchers found that restrictive emotionality was the stronger predictor. In Study 2, men who believed they should conceal their emotions were significantly less likely to say they would seek help from mental health professionals, friends, or intimate partners.
Mediation analyses suggested that toxic masculinity contributes to reduced help-seeking by increasing emotional restriction. In other words, the cultural scripts tied to toxic masculinity may not directly discourage seeking help but foster beliefs about emotional toughness that do.
“High toxic masculinity, a term which highlights traits of aggression and dominance, revealed higher likelihood to restrict external emotional displays (restricted emotionality),” the researchers explained. “In turn this restricted emotionality showed decreased likelihood of accessing mental health support. Whilst toxic masculinity and mental health seeking support was not directly related, one can still hold these findings as important considerations when discussing mental health in male populations.”
“The associations between toxic masculinity and restricted emotionality were substantial in both of our studies, suggesting that many – but not all – men who score high in toxic masculinity are also more likely to mask any signs of feeling anxious or rejected, for example.”
The researchers also examined whether participants would turn to specific sources of support. Interestingly, men high in toxic masculinity were less likely to seek help from friends or romantic partners but were more willing to turn to religious leaders. This could reflect a belief that certain contexts or authority figures offer socially acceptable outlets for emotional vulnerability, particularly within traditional frameworks.
As with all research, there are limitations to consider. The research was cross-sectional, meaning that it captured correlations between variables at one point in time and cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships. Longitudinal studies will be necessary to establish whether toxic masculinity and emotional restriction actively lead to decreased help-seeking behavior over time.
Another limitation is cultural. Because the research was conducted in the United Kingdom, its findings may not fully generalize to other cultural contexts. Social norms around masculinity vary widely across countries and communities, and what constitutes “toxic” traits in one society may be interpreted differently elsewhere.
The findings have practical relevance for those designing mental health outreach and services for men. Rather than framing emotional vulnerability as a departure from masculinity, programs might aim to reframe emotional openness as a strength. Interventions could also be designed to specifically address restrictive emotionality, which appears to be a more immediate barrier to help-seeking than toxic masculinity itself.
The study’s authors caution that not all men who endorse masculine norms are at risk. Their data show substantial variability in the extent to which men adhere to these beliefs. Still, the consistent association between toxic masculinity and emotional restriction suggests that changing public discourse around masculinity could have long-term benefits for men’s mental health.
“Our goals for the research is to aid in the study of men’s mental health seeking support to highlight potential needs for adaptations in mental health education and treatment in men,” the researchers said.
The study, “The impact of toxic masculinity on restrictive emotionality and mental health seeking support,” was authored by Eva Horton, Nathaniel Schermerhorn, and Paul Hanel.
