In a new research paper published in Science, cognitive scientists from Johns Hopkins University reported on a bonobo’s ability to participate in shared imaginative play that was previously considered unique to humans. Christopher Krupenye, an assistant professor of Psychological and Brain Sciences at Johns Hopkins, was one of the leaders of this research and received help from Amalia Bastos, now a lecturer at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland.
In the course of the study, Kanzi, a 43-year-old bonobo currently living at the Ape Initiative, participated in many studies over his lifetime and has been shown to respond to spoken English by using a pointing gesture. During multiple controlled experiments conducted with Kanzi, he exhibited the ability to track and follow imaginary juice and grapes with his eyes, while understanding that the cups and jars were empty.
“This is a groundbreaking discovery because it suggests they (bonobos) can think beyond their present,” said Krupenye. “Historically, imagination was considered a uniquely human trait. However, these findings indicate that this is not necessarily the case.”
For many years, Christians and scientists wondered if animals could think away from the present. This study provides an exceptional opportunity to demonstrate that at least one species of primates is capable of doing this.
Children around the age of two usually begin pretend play. Many children can recognize when they are in a tea party even if the cups are empty, and they know what, where, and how to fill those cups or jars. Even very young infants are able to express surprise at pretend play occurring under an incorrect premise of the rules for the fake action, when the real action is being done.
This type of play requires a very high level of thought. It requires the individual to simultaneously keep two pieces of information in mind: the objective of the action, the real object, as well as what the action is supposed to represent. It is through the ability to create two ideas that the knowledge of what is real and what is imagined is developed.
The name given to this mental ability by researchers is called secondary representation. This allows the mind to develop an imaginary world separated from the real world, without mixing the two worlds together. Although it is thought of as primarily relating to play, secondary representation also supports several other thinking processes, such as the ability to mentally picture the future, reasoning through cause and effect, and theorizing about others’ beliefs.
Prior to this research, there were no studies conducted under controlled conditions that provided proof that an animal could perform secondary representation. Although there have been some anecdotal records of animal behavior similar to pretense, they cannot conclusively prove that this behavior is indicative of secondary representation.
In the wild, baby chimpanzees have previously been seen carrying sticks as if they were babies. A captive chimp was also recorded dragging a non-existent block along the floor. There are, therefore, still many other possibilities that could be the true explanation for these behaviors.
This research was conducted to provide a better test of pretense, because it is necessary to track an object that exists in no physical form. Krupenye and Bastos developed a testing method for their experiment that was analogous to a child’s tea party.
Kanzi, a chimpanzee, sat behind a table across from the researcher. The table contained empty, clear glass tumblers, pitchers, bowls, jars, and similar items. It was made clear that all of the containers and objects were empty and transparent, in order to present it definitively that there was nothing inside them.
Prior to conducting the pretense testing, the researchers ensured that Kanzi fully understood the task he was being asked to do. In the experiment, Kanzi was shown two separate clear glass bottles, one containing juice and the other empty. Kanzi was required to indicate where the juice was, and he correctly selected the juice every time he was given this testing method. The evidence showed that he recognized cues and utilized information in formulating his choices.
Then came the pretend activity.
To start, the experimenter pretended to fill two cups with imaginary juice. He pretended to dump one of the cups by shaking it while doing so. In actuality, both cups were empty.
Then, the experimenter asked Kanzi the critical question: “Where’s the juice?”
If Kanzi only used visual information to determine where the juice was located, then both cups would have seemed to contain the same thing at the time. If Kanzi had used simple directional cues, meaning the most recently held cup would seem to contain the juice, then he would likely have pointed to the last cup.
In contrast, throughout many trials with no expectation of reward, Kanzi made a majority of his predictions correctly. He also made correct predictions on his first attempt. Overall, while he was not consistently right, he performed considerably above chance over the entire course of the experiment.
One concern that was raised was whether Kanzi actually thought he was drinking the imaginary juice. In order to verify Kanzi’s ability to distinguish between make-believe and real liquids, a second experiment was conducted in which real juice was present along with make-believe juice.
In this case, both cups were involved in the setup. One cup was filled with real juice, and the other was empty, but the experimenter pretended to fill it with juice. In the majority of trials where he was asked to select a cup, Kanzi was able to differentiate between real juice and fake juice eight times more often than not.
This result indicates that Kanzi clearly knew the distinction between the two forms of beverage. He had an accurate understanding of the difference between them, and therefore the outcome was not simply an error on his part.
The research team then proceeded to investigate whether Kanzi’s ability to identify real and fake grapes would transfer from the earlier experiment with juice to a similar experiment with grapes.
Kanzi successfully tracked where the real grape was at all times during the experiment. When the experimenters presented the fake grape scenario, he once again was able to successfully track where the fake grape would be. The success Kanzi had with juice tracking in the earlier study was nearly the same as his success with grapes.
The authors of the study were able to establish that Kanzi could track and understand both imaginary and real objects. “The research indicating the ability of the ape in their minds to conceive of things that are not there should certainly be taken very seriously,” said study coauthor Bastos. “It should be very exciting to see that Kanzi was able to create the concept of a fake or imaginary object while understanding that it is not a physical object.”
The next step for the authors was to rule out other possible explanations for the findings. They carefully ruled out the possibility that Kanzi’s knowledge of the imagined object was based on imitation of a gesture made by the researcher, and they confirmed that Kanzi demonstrated the ability to track the imaginary grape independently.
Krupenye said that “Jane Goodall discovered that chimpanzees were tool makers, and based upon this finding, our understanding of the definition of being human was significantly altered. This new finding on Kanzi also should impact how we regard who and what we are, and therefore must lead us to a more profound respect for the cognitive lives of other animals.”
Based on these research findings, animal advocates may begin to alter the way they care for great apes both in captivity and in the wild. The next generation of researchers will be able to ask whether there are other species capable of similar behavior or imagination. Therefore, this research will lay the groundwork for continued studies on the nature of imagination and how it relates to behaviors such as planning, empathy, and understanding others.
Overall, this research represents a significant advancement in understanding the cognitive abilities of animals and an increase in respect for animal minds.
Humans share many characteristics and behaviors with other animals, and the findings of this research contribute to a better understanding of how these behaviors and cognitive characteristics interact and influence one another.
Research findings are available online in the journal Science.
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