The concept of masochism often evokes images of whips, chains, and leather. While these elements can certainly be part of the picture, the scientific and historical reality is far more nuanced. At its core, masochism refers to the experience of finding pleasure or gratification in pain, humiliation, or submission. This seeming paradox has puzzled psychologists and neurologists for over a century. How can a sensation designed to warn the body of danger become a source of enjoyment?
Recent research suggests the answer lies in a complex interplay of biology, psychology, and social context. Scientists are finding that pain and pleasure share overlapping neural pathways. They also suggest that the context in which pain occurs can fundamentally alter how the brain processes it. To understand masochism, one must look beyond the physical sensation and examine the mind of the person experiencing it.
The word “masochism” has a literary origin. It was coined in 1883 by the German neurologist Richard von Krafft-Ebing. He derived the term from the name of Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, an Austrian writer. Sacher-Masoch was a nobleman and journalist known for writing romantic stories about life in Galicia. He became famous for his novella Venus in Furs, published in 1869.
The story within Venus in Furs follows a man named Severin von Kusiemski. Severin is so infatuated with a woman named Wanda von Dunajew that he asks to be her slave. He encourages her to treat him in progressively degrading ways. Wanda is initially hesitant but eventually embraces the role of the dominant figure. Severin describes his feelings during these ordeals as “suprasensuality.” The story mirrors the author’s own life, as Sacher-Masoch famously signed a contract with his mistress to become her slave for six months.
Krafft-Ebing used Sacher-Masoch’s name to describe a specific psychopathology. In his book Psychopathia Sexualis, he defined masochism as a condition where an individual is controlled by the idea of being completely subject to the will of another person. He noted that this idea is often colored by lustful feeling. Krafft-Ebing considered this a perversion of sexual life.
Later, Sigmund Freud expanded on these ideas. In his 1905 work Three Papers on Sexual Theory, Freud linked masochism with sadism. Sadism is the derivation of pleasure from inflicting pain on others. Freud argued that sadism and masochism were two sides of the same coin. He suggested that a person who enjoys inflicting pain is also capable of enjoying receiving it. He viewed these tendencies as stemming from psychological development in early childhood.
In modern psychology, the definition has evolved. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) distinguishes between masochistic sexual interests and a mental disorder. Many people enjoy masochistic elements in their sexual lives without meeting the criteria for a disorder.
The DSM-5 defines Sexual Masochism Disorder specifically. To receive this diagnosis, a person must experience recurrent and intense sexual arousal from being humiliated, beaten, bound, or made to suffer. This pattern must persist for at least six months. Most importantly, these urges or behaviors must cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
If an individual engages in these behaviors consensually and experiences no distress or dysfunction, they do not have a disorder. This distinction is vital. It separates consensual BDSM practices from pathological conditions. BDSM is an acronym that stands for Bondage and Discipline, Dominance and Submission, and Sadism and Masochism.
One of the central questions regarding masochism is how physical pain can translate into pleasure. A paper published in The Journal of Sex Research by Cara R. Dunkley and colleagues at the University of British Columbia proposes a theoretical model for this phenomenon. The researchers argue that pain in a BDSM context is qualitatively different from accidental pain.
Accidental pain, such as stubbing a toe, triggers a threat response. It signals danger and creates suffering. In contrast, masochistic pain is often described as “good pain.” The researchers suggest that this transformation occurs through “top-down processing.” This is a function where the brain interprets sensory data based on expectations, memories, and context.
When a person consents to pain in a safe environment, their brain regulates the sensation. This regulation involves the release of specific neurochemicals. The researchers point to endogenous opioids and endocannabinoids as key players. Endogenous opioids are the body’s natural painkillers, similar to morphine. Endocannabinoids are chemicals produced by the body that interact with the same receptors as cannabis.
These chemicals are often released during intense physical exertion, leading to phenomena like the “runner’s high.” The researchers suggest a similar process occurs during masochistic activities. The physiological stress of the activity triggers a flood of these mood-enhancing chemicals. This can blunt the sharpness of the pain and induce feelings of euphoria or relaxation.
Dunkley and her team also highlight the role of sexual arousal. Research indicates that sexual arousal can act as a powerful analgesic, or pain reliever. Studies have shown that stimulation of the genitals can raise the threshold for pain tolerance significantly. When arousal is present, the brain may suppress negative emotional reactions to pain. This allows the physical sensation to be experienced as intense but not necessarily aversive.
Beyond the chemical reaction, masochism may serve a psychological function. Dunkley and colleagues discuss the concept of “subspace.” This is a colloquial term used in the BDSM community to describe a trance-like state. It is characterized by feelings of floating, peace, and detachment from reality.
The researchers compare this state to “flow” or mindfulness meditation. During intense sensation, an individual’s focus narrows to the immediate present. This can provide a relief from the burdens of self-awareness. Baumeister, a prominent psychologist, described this as “escaping the self.” For a high-functioning or stressed individual, the forced focus of pain can be a welcome vacation from their daily responsibilities and thoughts.
This state appears to reduce activity in the parts of the brain responsible for executive function and self-monitoring. This phenomenon is known as transient hypofrontality. By shutting down the internal monologue, the individual achieves a state of deep relaxation. This paradox—that stress on the body leads to peace in the mind—is a recurring theme in the study of masochism.
Masochism is not limited to the bedroom. A study published in the Journal of Research in Personality in 2023 explores the concept of “benign masochism.” This term refers to the tendency to enjoy negative experiences in a safe context. Common examples include eating extremely spicy food, watching tear-jerker movies, or riding terrifying roller coasters.
Karolina Dyduch-Hazar and Vanessa Mitschke led this research. They sought to determine if people with masochistic traits actively seek out unpleasant stimuli. They conducted studies where participants could choose which videos to watch. The videos varied in emotional tone, ranging from happy scenes to disgusting ones, such as a man vomiting.
The researchers found that individuals who scored high on a scale of benign masochism showed a distinct preference. They were more likely to choose and enjoy videos that were highly arousing and negative. While most people preferred positive content, these individuals found pleasure in the intensity of the negative clips.
The researchers suggest that this behavior stems from a desire for sensation. It also involves the realization that the threat is not real. Dyduch-Hazar explains that the joy comes from realizing that one has been “fooled” by their body. The physical reaction is fear or disgust, but the mind knows there is no actual danger. This creates a safe space to experience intense emotions.
The relationship between childhood experiences and adult sexual preferences is a subject of ongoing investigation. A study published in Sexologies in 2022 by Mike Abrams and his colleagues explored the link between childhood abuse and sadomasochism. They surveyed over 1,000 adults about their histories of psychological, physical, and sexual abuse.
The findings indicated a correlation. Participants who reported childhood abuse were more likely to report sadomasochistic tendencies in adulthood. The type of abuse seemed to matter. Sexual abuse was most strongly associated with more extreme forms of sadism and masochism. Psychological abuse was linked to milder forms.
Abrams notes that this relationship is complex. It does not mean that all survivors of abuse will develop these interests. Nor does it mean that all masochists were abused. However, the data suggests that early experiences can shape how individuals eroticize power and pain.
This link to trauma raises a critical question: Is engaging in BDSM a harmful repetition of past abuse, or can it be a form of healing? A 2024 paper in the Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy tackled this difficult issue. Ateret Gewirtz-Meydan and her team reviewed existing literature to understand the mechanisms at play.
They found that for some survivors, BDSM offers a way to reclaim control. This process is sometimes called “rescripting.” In a consensual scene, the survivor calls the shots. They set the boundaries and have the power to stop the action at any moment. This can allow them to revisit traumatic feelings from a position of power rather than helplessness.
This transforms a passive experience of victimization into an active experience of survival and pleasure. The researchers note that BDSM emphasizes explicit consent and negotiation. This framework can help survivors learn to establish and enforce boundaries.
However, the researchers also warn of risks. The intense power dynamics can trigger retraumatization. If a scene goes wrong or boundaries are ignored, it can replicate the original abuse. Dissociation is another risk factor. Dissociation is a coping mechanism where a person detaches from reality. While some seek this state for relief, it can be harmful if it prevents an individual from processing their emotions or recognizing when they are unsafe.
The researchers conclude that there is no one-size-fits-all answer. For some, BDSM is a powerful therapeutic tool. For others, it may reinforce negative patterns. Clinicians are encouraged to approach the topic without judgment and to understand the specific motivations of the individual.
“It is crucial for clinicians to approach this topic with sensitivity and avoid pathologizing BDSM practices,” Gewirtz-Meydan told PsyPost. “Understanding the therapeutic potential of BDSM and fostering open, non-judgmental conversations about it can contribute to destigmatizing and empowering trauma survivors.”
A surprising area of research links sexual masochism with chronic pain conditions. A study published in the European Journal of Pain in 2026 by Annabel Vetterlein and her colleagues investigated this connection. They surveyed a large group of individuals, some of whom identified as BDSM practitioners and some who did not.
The results showed a significantly higher prevalence of chronic pain among the BDSM practitioners. Approximately 47% of the participants with sadomasochistic interests reported living with chronic pain. This is compared to about 29% in the control group. This finding was consistent across both men and women.
The researchers explored why this might be. They found that practitioners of sadomasochism tended to view pain differently than the general population. They were more likely to see pain as a challenge to be overcome rather than a tragedy to be feared. They also scored higher on measures of sensation seeking.
Vetterlein and her team suggest that engaging in masochism might serve as a coping strategy. The experience of acute, voluntary pain during a BDSM scene triggers the release of pain-relieving neurochemicals. This can provide temporary relief from the persistent, involuntary pain of a chronic condition.
This “fighting pain with pain” approach allows the individual to feel a sense of control. Chronic pain often makes people feel helpless. Voluntary pain restores a sense of agency. The researchers also noted that the social aspect of BDSM might play a role. Sharing the experience of pain with a partner can create a sense of belonging and support that is often lacking for chronic pain sufferers.
The study by Vetterlein also sought to identify what personality traits predict an interest in masochism. They found three main factors. The first was having chronic pain, as mentioned above. The second was “sensation seeking.” This is a personality trait defined by the search for experiences and feelings that are varied, novel, complex, and intense. Sensation seekers are often willing to take physical and social risks for the sake of such experiences.
The third predictor was a specific attitude toward pain. Individuals who viewed pain as a “challenge” were much more likely to have masochistic interests. This attitude frames pain as a test of endurance and strength. It removes the victimhood often associated with suffering and replaces it with a narrative of achievement.
The scientific understanding of masochism has come a long way since Krafft-Ebing first defined it as a perversion. Today, researchers recognize it as a multifaceted phenomenon. It is not simply a desire to be hurt. It is a complex interaction between the brain’s reward systems, an individual’s psychological history, and their social environment.
Physiologically, it exploits the body’s natural response to stress to create pleasure. Psychologically, it offers a way to alter consciousness, escape self-awareness, and potentially cope with trauma or chronic pain. Socially, it relies on strict codes of consent and trust to transform a threat into a game.
Whether manifested as a sexual preference, a taste for spicy food, or a way to manage past trauma, masochism highlights the adaptability of the human mind. It demonstrates that our experience of reality—and specifically of pain—is not a fixed biological fact. It is a subjective experience that we can shape, reframe, and sometimes even enjoy.
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