Motivation acts as a camera lens that shapes how memories form

New research suggests that motivation acts less like a volume knob for effort and more like a camera lens that changes how the brain records events. A theoretical framework published in the Annual Review of Psychology proposes that distinct chemical signals in the brain create specific motivational “moods” that determine whether we remember the big picture or focused details.

We often assume that being motivated simply means having the energy to pursue a goal. Psychologists have historically categorized this drive by its source, such as an internal desire to learn or an external reward like money. However, these categories do not fully explain the biological mechanisms at play.

To bridge this gap, Assistant Professor Jia-Hou Poh of the National University of Singapore and his colleague Professor R. Alison Adcock of Duke University analyzed existing literature to build a new model. They wanted to understand how the brain shifts between different modes of processing information. Their work focuses on how chemical messengers shape the “neural context” of our thoughts.

The researchers argue that motivation is not a single state. Instead, it arises from the activity of specific neuromodulatory systems. These are networks of neurons that release chemicals to tune the firing patterns of other brain regions. The authors focused on two primary systems.

One is the dopaminergic system, which originates in a brain area called the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The other is the noradrenergic system, which centers on the locus coeruleus (LC). While scientists have studied these regions for decades, this new review suggests their distinct activation patterns lead to fundamentally different types of memory.

“Beyond studying whether motivation helps memory, we investigated how it shapes memory,” said Poh. “Our framework explains that curiosity, stress, deadlines, and rewards result in distinct learning outcomes. This is because each factor induces a different motivational ‘mood’ which in turn modulates how information is processed.”

The authors describe two primary motivational moods. The first is what they call the “interrogative mood.” This state arises when we are driven by the need to adapt to our environment or resolve uncertainty. Imagine a hiker exploring a new trail not to reach a destination quickly, but to understand the lay of the land. In this state, the brain releases dopamine from the VTA. This chemical signal engages the hippocampus, a region essential for forming long-term memories, and the prefrontal cortex, which handles planning.

When the brain is in this interrogative mood, it prioritizes the formation of relational memories. It connects new pieces of information to existing knowledge structures. This allows the learner to build a “schema” or a mental map of concepts. The memory formed is flexible. It allows the individual to make inferences and generalize what they learned to new situations in the future. This type of motivation is often active during periods of curiosity or when exploring a topic without immediate pressure.

The second state is the “imperative mood.” This arises when the motivation is to act immediately. This often occurs in the presence of a high-stakes reward, a deadline, or a threat. Consider the same hiker who suddenly spots a bear on the trail. The goal shifts from exploration to immediate survival. In this context, the locus coeruleus releases noradrenaline. This chemical shifts the brain’s focus. It engages the amygdala, which processes emotional salience, and the sensory cortices that handle sight and sound.

In the imperative mood, the brain forms “unitized” memories. These are memories that are highly detailed regarding the specific object of attention. The hiker will likely remember the teeth of the bear or the exact location of the exit with extreme clarity. However, this comes at a cost. The background context and the relationships between other objects in the environment are often filtered out. The brain narrows its lens to ensure the immediate goal is met. This mode is effective for urgent tasks but less effective for building flexible knowledge that can be applied broadly.

The researchers propose that these shifts happen because the brain must manage limited resources. It cannot process every detail and every connection simultaneously. The distribution of value in the environment dictates which system takes charge. If there is one singular, overwhelming goal, the LC system creates an imperative state. If there are many potential sources of value or rewards are distributed, the VTA system encourages an interrogative state to map out the possibilities.

“These neuromodulatory systems, dopamine and noradrenaline, act like switches that tune the entire brain for different kinds of learning,” said Adcock. “Understanding these switches gives us powerful new levers for designing more effective classrooms and therapies. We hope to help individuals identify these motivational moods and learn to match them to the challenges they face.”

This framework has practical implications for education. A classroom environment driven heavily by high-stakes testing may trigger the imperative mood. This could help students memorize specific facts or items required for the exam. However, it might hinder their ability to understand how those facts relate to one another.

Conversely, an environment that fosters curiosity without immediate pressure may engage the interrogative mood. This would support deeper conceptual understanding but perhaps less precision on specific details. The authors suggest that effective learning likely requires a balance of both states at different times.

The review also points to potential clinical applications. Many psychiatric conditions involve disruptions in motivation and memory. For example, anxiety might keep a brain locked in an imperative mood, constantly scanning for threats and unable to relax into an exploratory state. Depression might involve a failure of the VTA system to engage, making the world seem devoid of interesting possibilities. By understanding the underlying neurochemistry, clinicians might develop better strategies to help patients regulate these states.

There are caveats to this theoretical framework. Much of the supporting evidence comes from animal studies or specific laboratory tasks in humans. The real world is messy, and these systems likely interact in dynamic ways that are hard to capture in a controlled experiment. The VTA and LC are not entirely isolated from each other. They share connections, and their activities can overlap. The authors acknowledge that biological reality is likely a mix of these states rather than a binary switch.

Future research will need to test the specific predictions of this model. The researchers are interested in whether people can be trained to recognize and regulate their own motivational states. They are investigating the use of neurofeedback, where individuals see real-time displays of their brain activity, to help them learn to activate these systems voluntarily.

“Our long-term goal is to empower people with the ability to tune their own brains for learning,” said Poh. “By understanding how motivation shapes memory, people can learn to harness urgency to focus learning and support efficient action, or engage their curiosity to prepare for flexibility in an unknown future.”

The study, “Motivation as Neural Context for Adaptive Learning and Memory Formation,” was authored by Jia-Hou Poh and R. Alison Adcock.